DEFINITIONS HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS, SYNTHETIC DRUGS DRUGS AND THE WAR AGAINST THEM DRUG CLASSIFICATION DRUGGING DRUG TAKING ROUTES A LITTLE HISTORY CANNABIS SATIVA (HEMP) OPIATES COCAIN AMPHETAMINES AND SIMILAR SUBSTANCES HALLUCINOGENS BENZODIAZEPINAT – BZD NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

AMPHETAMINES AND SIMILAR SUBSTANCES

HISTORY

The name "amphetamine" comes from one of its chemical subnames: α-methyl-phenyl-ethan-amine (α - methyl - phenyl - ethan - amine), from which we get the acronym a-m-phe-eth-amine = amphetamine.

The first synthesis of amphetamine was carried out on January 18, 1887, by the Romanian chemist Lazar Edeleanu at the University of Berlin, who named it phenylisopropylamine, but this discovery was not used for anything.

Scientific research was repeated many years later and during these searches, a product that had bronchodilator properties (that expanded the bronchi) was rediscovered.

A scientific researcher of the pharmaceutical company Lilly discovered in 1920 that an extract of the plant Ephedra vulgaris had this effect. The active compound was isolated and named ephedrine, with a molecular structure similar to adrenaline, but not degraded by digestion. Meanwhile, since the plant is rare, the extraction of ephedrine was costly.

Amphetamine was resynthesized by Gordon Alles at the University of Los Angeles, in 1927.

In 1932, amphetamine was launched on the market under the brand name benzedrine and recommended as a bronchodilator. It was a product inhaled through the nose.

By the end of the 1930s, amphetamines were developed by American pharmaceutical companies as a treatment for diseases such as rhinitis (noses congested with secretions) and asthma. In 1935, its stimulant action was observed and it was used for the treatment related to narcolepsy. It was quickly distributed in the form of an inhaler and used for various purposes, especially by students trying to ward off sleep during examination periods. It is thought that Benzedrine (at that time, the commercial name for amphetamine) played a significant role in England's war, allowing British aviators to compensate for their numerical inferiority.

Methedrine (methedrine), another derivative, allowed German troops to not stop at all during the eleven days of the Balkan campaign in May 1941.

Japanese armament factories distributed methedrine to workers. The stocks that this substance had created after the war, and the production capacities of the pharmaceutical factories opened a market, causing an addiction in 5% of Japanese youth in the 1950s.

Methedrine is still used to this day, especially by the US military.

Also, Europe and the USA authorized the distribution of derivatives of this type of product (amphetamine, methedrine, and the famous Maxiton used by cyclists).

The USA produced 1000 tons of this product per year for the domestic market, and in 1972 approximately 12% of medical prescriptions included content of amphetamine derivatives.

The death of Tom Simpson during the Tour de France in 1967 and the caused intoxication demanded stricter control in Europe and the USA in the 1970s, and these products became listed by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971.

The use of amphetamines, now clandestine, mainly concerns the increase in sports performance and resistance to fatigue (during festive evenings or during periods of intensive work).

THE PLANT

Ephedra vulgaris or Ephedra distachya, also called ma huang, is a plant grown in the Himalayas that has been mentioned for centuries in many herbal medicines.

Ephedra distachya is a shrub in the Ephedraceae family, about 25 cm to 50 cm tall, which grows in Central and Southern Europe and parts of Western and Central Asia, from Portugal to Kazakhstan. Local names also include the name somlatha.

In fact, there are many plants in the Ephedra genus. We distinguish two subspecies:

The male plant in bloom

Pollen cones

The female plant cones

Mature cones with seeds

The female plant with mature cones

Rhizome and Bark

The plant has been used to alleviate acute muscular and rheumatic pains [when it was called Teamsters' Tea], as a stimulant and in cardiac tonics in Hindu Ayurveda. It has sometimes been identified with the legendary drug soma, as described in the Avesta and RigVeda, the ancient sacred texts of the respective Zoroastrian and Hindu beliefs.

The Chinese have used this plant more than 5000 years ago to cure asthma.

Ephedra vulgaris is one of the most favored sources for ephedrine.

Ephedrine, an alkaloid, is extracted from the dried branches of the plant and has been used as a stimulant, often to control asthma. The alkaloid was isolated from the plant by Nagayoshi Nagai in 1885. All parts of the plant contain over 3% ephedrine.

Ephedrine has been called a sympathomimetic drug, meaning the use of the Ephedra vulgaris plant functions much like adrenaline. It stimulates the body like adrenaline, which explains its use for centuries in treating asthma.

Ephedra vulgaris has worked and works very well for treating nasal congestion (nasal secretions).

Ephedra vulgaris is included for the treatment of low blood pressure, to overcome fevers, and to treat dry grass allergy.

Although unproven, herbal practitioners may claim that the plant helps in digestion and is a good antiseptic.

Ephedra vulgaris is still a popular medication for weight loss and increasing efficiency in most of the Western world, leading to concerns and legal steps to restrict its use.

Some side effects are noticeable and these include lack of appetite, difficulty sleeping, arrhythmias, and the risk of heart or brain strokes.

GENERAL INFORMATION

Amphetamine, methamphetamine, and "crystal meth" (MDMA) belong to the same class of substances, that of amphetamines. The term "amphetamine" describes a group of molecules whose pharmacological effects are similar.

Amphetamines (in plural) are a group of molecules of the phenylethylamine structure.

We distinguish three main types of amphetamine derivatives according to their main effects: psychostimulant, hallucinogenic, or anorexigenic. By modifying the phenylethylamine molecule to a greater or lesser extent, it becomes possible to obtain products, one of whose effects (stimulant, hallucinogenic, or anorexigenic) is stronger in relation to the others. Thus, we have been able to perfect an anorexigenic like fenfluramine that does not present a strong psychostimulant or hallucinogenic effect.

Until the 1970s, the illegal trade of amphetamines was mainly concerned with psychostimulant derivatives. Since then, hallucinogenic derivatives have been added to this trade, especially ecstasy, which became the object of significant consumption. On the other hand, some anorexigenic derivatives, whose psychostimulant effect is not completely eliminated, have been diverted from their medical use.

Among the amphetamines we have:

Amphetamine is a sympathomimetic substance with anorexigenic and psychoanaleptic effects. It is used as an appetite suppressant, as a central nervous system stimulant and for the treatment of hyperactivity in children.

Sympathomimetic substances mimic the effects of the sympathetic nervous system's transmitter substances such as catecholamines, epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), dopamine, etc. Such substances (medications) are used to treat cardiac arrest and low blood pressure, or to delay premature labor, among others.

SYMPATHOMIMETIC SUBSTANCES

Amphetamine was used in North America to treat attention disorders, narcolepsy, and sometimes in the treatment of obesity.

Although the pure form has been discontinued since 1959, it remains used in the form of dextroamphetamine sulfate.

Its use as an anti-fatigue in the military is well known. Amphetamine has been used as a drug for recreational and entertainment effects or as a doping agent, most often under the name speed, especially during wild and free parties. The drug has also been used by some to seek increased productivity, during the preparation of a school exam for example.

2-dimensional chemical structure of amphetamine

3-dimensional chemical structure of amphetamine

WAYS OF CONSUMPTION

Drugs generally come in the form of white powder, sometimes colored. We also find them in the form of gels, tablets, or crystals.

The product sold clandestinely under the name «speed» may or may not contain amphetamines (particularly amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, methamphetamine), other active products with a similar or dissimilar effect, among which psychotropic substances, or even sometimes dangerous ingredients. Very often mixed with other products, amphetamines can be administered (taken) orally, swallowed or even snorted, and very rarely, injected.

The doses of amphetamines consumed in a day can be very variable and depend, among other things, on the substance used, the route of administration, and the consumer's habits.

Amphetamine acts by releasing dopamine in the brain. It blocks the reuptake of dopamine in the synapse. It inhibits the activity of the enzyme MAO (monoamine oxidase).

It acts on the body 12 to 14 hours after being consumed.

Depending on the amount consumed and whether it is combined with other stimulants such as alcohol, amphetamine can become very dangerous.

It crosses the placental barrier and causes numerous damages to the fetus.

EFFECTS

Since amphetamine is a psychoactive product, the desired effects can sometimes turn into a «bad trip».

SHORT-TERM EFFECTS

LONG-TERM EFFECTS

WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME AND OTHER RISKS

Regular use causes psychological dependence. Immediate cessation of consumption causes withdrawal syndrome. Withdrawal from amphetamines can result in an obsessive idea that may lead to immediate irritation or aggression, or an extreme drowsiness episode (not to be confused with chronic fatigue).

Methods of consumption cause other risks:

Mixing with other substances such as alcohol, ecstasy, a hallucinogen, stimulant, antidepressant can lead to death.

A health condition incompatible with the consumption of amphetamines (cases with cardiovascular problems, hypertension, epilepsy, renal problems, asthma, diabetes) can lead to death.

METHAMPHETAMINE

Methamphetamine is a psychostimulant of the amphetamine family. It has powerful effects on the functioning of the central nervous system because it is twice as active as amphetamine.

Methamphetamine is part of a group of substances called "club drugs" among which we also find substances like ecstasy, GHB, PCP, and ketamine. These drugs are mostly associated with the phenomenon of wild nights and "After Hours" clubs.

"Crystal meth" is a name initially attributed to methamphetamine in crystal form, but "crystal meth" can also be presented in powder form or as tablets.

Methamphetamine is produced in clandestine laboratories with the help of widespread chemicals and over-the-counter medications, especially ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, iodine, red phosphorus, hydrochloric acid, ether, hydriodic acid, and ammonia. Other products found in hardware stores can be added: industrial solvents, Drano® or battery lithium, etc.

WAYS OF CONSUMPTION

The most common ways of consumption are:

The preparation in powder form is mainly intended to be swallowed and is usually found under the name "meth" or "speed". This powder is white, crystalline, odorless, and dissolves easily in water or alcohol.

As for the form intended to be smoked, the term "crystal meth", "ice", "crystal" or "glass" is used. It appears in the form of clear crystals that can be smoked in the same way as cocaine in "crack" form.

"Crystal meth" can also be injected.

When methamphetamine is taken orally, the effects begin after 15 to 20 minutes and can last up to 12 hours, possibly a whole day.

The drug is absorbed much faster when it is taken by snorting.

It is absorbed even faster when taken intravenously or intrapulmonary. In this case, effects are felt almost simultaneously and the drug provokes an intense euphoria that goes up to an orgasmic-like sensation, usually called "rush".

"Crystal meth" consumed by inhalation or by injection is one of the most powerful psychostimulants available on the illegal drug market.

EFFECTS AND RISKS

After consuming methamphetamine, the individual is more alert, more alarmed, and experiences a sense of domination. Physical and psychological dependence set in more quickly and the desire to re-consume this drug will then become a constant concern that will gradually increase to obsession. This obsession can only be resolved through a new episode of intense consumption.

Chronic users typically present various symptoms of distress, anxiety, insomnia, and depression, sometimes with suicidal thoughts.

Different psychotic manifestations such as paranoid disorders, obsessive delusions, and hallucinations may be added, sometimes leading to violent behavior. This aggression is caused by paranoid ideas and the impression of continuous danger. Psychotic symptoms may continue for months, even years after stopping consumption.

Also, we may have confusion and prolonged cognitive deficits. Their number, amplitude, duration, and frequency generally vary depending on the intensity and duration of consumption.

The consumption of methamphetamine, also, can cause various physical disorders that vary according to the doses consumed and the sensitivity of the consumer.

The consumption of methamphetamine can cause:

With high doses, methamphetamine can cause hyperthermia (sometimes the fevers are very strong), seizures, and death.

In the case of the interaction of methamphetamine with other psycho-stimulants, we generally deal with synergistic effects, meaning the effects add up or multiply and thus increase the risks of overdose.

In the case of the interaction of methamphetamine with antidepressants, their simultaneous consumption can lead to dangerous blood pressure changes. These physiological symptoms can cause headaches, seizures (muscle spasms or cramps), cardiovascular problems, and an acute risk of the serotonin syndrome, which implies some of the following manifestations: agitation, confusion, nervousness, consciousness fluctuation, weakness, muscle numbness, fever, sweating, chills, tremors, hypertension, seizures, and cardiovascular collapse.

MDMA - ECSTASY

MDMA was first synthesized in 1898 by Fritz Haber in Germany.

It was later rediscovered in 1912 by Merck laboratories, hoping to use it as an anorectic which they commercialized in 1914. [At that time, MDMA was an intermediate in the manufacturing of a styptic (vasoconstrictor)].

MDMA could have been used by German troops for its anorectic and stimulant properties.

In 1953, the American military became interested in it, under the name EA-1475, as part of the MKULTRA project. Due to the lack of results, this research was discontinued with the project in the 1960s, and studies were made public in 1969.

Starting from 1965, Alexander Shulgin (Sasha), an American chemist in the medical field, became interested in MDMA, performing the synthesis himself.

In 1976, together with David E. Nichols, he published the impressions drawn from the use of MDMA. Following this publication, MDMA began to become popular and was available on the streets.

MDMA would be banned, progressively, in most countries, starting from the mid-1980s and is listed in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971.

In 1983, Ralph Metzner coined the term empathogen (which induces empathy) to describe specific effects of MDMA.

In 1986, David E. Nichols and Alexander Shulgin created the term entactogen (which facilitates contact) as an alternative to the term empathogen.

The properties of MDMA, rare among other psychedelic substances, highlight it for the treatment of post-traumatic stress (after an attack or a rape) to facilitate transfer to a psychoanalyst.

Meanwhile, the use of MDMA for mild therapeutics was quickly banned following its prohibition. The use of MDMA for mild therapeutics was resumed in the early 2000s (a study authorized in 2001 by the FDA). Also, the use of MDMA was applied from experimental protocols in Switzerland and Spain in the treatment of post-traumatic stress and other applications in psychiatry.

The results of current scientific research have confirmed the benefit of MDMA in the treatment of post-traumatic stress.

Currently, no medication containing MDMA is authorized and/or commercialized.

In 1990, the president of South Africa, Frederik de Klerk, banned the production of chemical agents and ordered their destruction. Wouter Basson, nicknamed “the death doctor”, a South African cardiologist, born on July 6, 1950, worked for the South African secret services in the 1970s-1980s, as head of the bacteriological and chemical program. W. Basson then focused on the production of substances like Ecstasy and Mandrax, without being stopped by the government and sold abundantly in anti-apartheid circles.

The use of MDMA as a recreational drug became trivialized in Western societies in festive contexts in the 1990s. This substance is often associated with techno environments, although it is consumed in all festive environments, starting from the 2000s.

GENERAL INFORMATION

2-dimensional chemical structure of MDMA

3-dimensional chemical structure of MDMA

Ecstasy or MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine) is an amphetamine. It's a central nervous system stimulant that possesses psychedelic properties. In the West, it is classified as a narcotic.

With doses above 200 mg, MDMA can have hallucinogenic effects.

The structure of MDMA is similar to that of MDA (methylenedioxyamphetamine).

The most common salt is the hydrochloride, presented in the form of white powder, or white to grey, or in soluble crystal form in water. Phosphate salt is also encountered.

Prohibited Ecstasy products are mostly encountered in the form of tablets containing a distinctive logo and, less frequently, in the form of white powder, or in pill form. Usually, the motif serves to name the ecstasy tablet in street slang.

The known dose (by authorities) of the active ingredient (MDMA) contained in a tablet varies from 1 to 268 milligrams.

The MDMA base is a colorless oil soluble in water.

SYNTHESIS

The main precursor of MDMA is the oil extracted from Sassafras, derived from the roots of the Sassafras tree, which grows in Asia, North and South America, mainly cultivated in Brazil and in some countries of the Indochinese peninsula (Thailand, Vietnam).

Safrole is an extract of the oil through distillation, transformed into isosafrole, then into 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MDP2P or PMK), which is an intermediate product used for the manufacturing of various molecules (MDA, MDEA, MDMA) sold as Ecstasy.

Four main precursors can be used within the framework of manufacturing MDMA and related drugs: safrole, isosafrole, piperonal, and 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (PMK). Safrole is the basic starting material, the other three substances can be synthesized starting from safrole.

In the original discovery by Merck, achieved in 1914, safrole was reacted with hydrobromic acid to form bromosafrole, which, in turn, was converted into MDMA using methylamine.

THE SASSAFRAS PLANT

WAYS OF CONSUMING MDMA

In tablet form, it is almost systematically used orally (by swallowing).

In powder form, it can be snorted, smoked, or injected, although the practice of injection is very rarely observed in the context of festive use.

DESIRED EFFECTS

MDMA acts by allowing a massive release of serotonin in the brain, which particularly modifies mood.

Effects appear between half an hour and an hour and a half after ingestion and last up to 6 hours, ending with a phase of exhaustion and depression ("the crash") for about 8 hours, but it can last over several weeks.

The desired effects are:

MDMA pills are called "love pills" because they give a feeling of universal love and inner peace.

Contrary to popular belief, ecstasy does not have an aphrodisiac effect. Ecstasy may increase the desire for someone, but it does not enhance sexual performance. Ecstasy can make it difficult to achieve an erection, as well as to ejaculate.

SHORT-TERM EFFECTS

MID-TERM EFFECTS

Three to four days after intake, a state of anxiety, depression, and significant fatigue attributed to the "lack" of serotonin is often observed.

Often, the day after taking ecstasy is painful and seems troubling to the user. Sometimes, they may even fall into a mild depression.

LONG-TERM EFFECTS

In the case of regular use, long-term effects include weakness, impotence, nervousness, insomnia, anxiety, dependency, and even personality disorders.

MDMA can be toxic to the kidneys, sometimes leading to cirrhosis.

MDMA can cause anomalies in the heart valves (tricuspid insufficiency).

There is a periodic "flash back" effect that can shift the user into a state induced by the consumption of the psychotropic substance without consuming it, and this can occur several months after the last consumption.

Most cases of the "prolonged post-hallucinatory syndrome" include anxiety, phobias, confusion, depression, and even strong delirious outbreaks.

Some scientific research attempts to highlight a potential degeneration of nerve cells that could cause degenerative diseases (long-term memory disorders such as Parkinson's disease), or depression.

Experiments on monkeys have shown that the consumption of ecstasy causes irreversible destruction of the individual's neurons.

The consumption of ecstasy is particularly dangerous in the case of cardiac rhythm disorders, asthma, epilepsy, diabetes, renal problems, and asthenia (general weakness).

Dilation of the pupil

ROAD TERMS

Users use terms to indicate the action of swallowing an Ecstasy tablet [in Canada "cachetonner" (bubble), "gober", "popper" (click), "pousser" (push), "croquer" (chew), "coller" (glue), or even "taper" (tap)].

Ecstasy itself is called "taz", "tata" (aunt), "peanut", "bonbon" (candy), "xeu", "by", "cœur" (heart), "extaz" (ecstasy), "E", "Pill", or directly "MDMA".

To indicate the fact of being under the effect of Ecstasy, terms such as "chépèr", "chepchep", "être à balle de…" (being parachuted…) are often used.

MDMA - ECSTASY